writing academic papers requires deliberate

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Academic Writing Style
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Among the most important rules and principles of academic engagement of a writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. The academic convention of citing sources facilitates processes of intellectual discovery, critical thinking, and applying a deliberate method of navigating through the scholarly landscape by tracking how cited works are propagated by scholars over time . Aside from citing sources, other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible.  As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

• Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
• Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
• Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
• Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
• Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
• Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
• Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
• Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

• A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
• A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
• The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

• It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
• Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
• You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
• You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
• The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
• The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
• You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
• You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
• Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
• Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
• The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

• You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
• It is not important who or what did the action;
• You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

• Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
• Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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Basic Rules for Academic Writing

Table of Contents

What is the Purpose of Academic Writing?

Although it goes without saying, when writing at a college or university level, students are expected to write in an academic style and this is expected in nearly all forms of assignments including, but not limited to:

• research papers
• presentations
• term papers
• thesis/dissertations
• and other written pieces

Although these may go by different names, the goal of these assignments remains the same – to test your knowledge in the subject area through a written task . 

This makes academic writing arguably the most important skill for effective academic communication, (although it may seem like specifically designed instruments of torture to grad students).

The truth is academic papers are not actually meant to be excruciatingly painful and put off until the end. Instead, if you approach the paper early on, and think of it as an opportunity to explore various topics of interest within your field of study, you can avoid the last-minute rush, and even turn-in a decent paper. But there are some basic rules you must follow when writing your academic paper.

Academic papers must be written in a particular style, catered towards academic audiences such as scholars within the same discipline (who are most often your tutors and instructors). When starting on a written assignment, think about your readers – what do they expect from you? The simple answer: they want you to convey your findings and arguments in a scientific and professional manner.

Read below for a snapshot of the dos and don’ts in academic writing or scroll further down for a detailed guide on the rules for academic writing.

What are the Basics of Academic Writing?

Here are some basic rules to follow to ensure the content of your paper meets the academic writing style required by most universities.

1. Use Formal Language

X Don’t use informal language X Don’t use first person narrative ✓ Use technical terms within your field ✓ Use transition words and punctuations to connect complex sentences

2. Maintain Structured Writing

✓ Include separate introduction and conclusion ✓ State clear aims at the beginning ✓ Use headings and sub-headings to section your paper ✓ Create flow between your paragraphs (for easy readability, write them in a sequence) X Don’t discuss unrelated points in the same paragraph X Don’t introduce new points in conclusions

3. Remain Objective

X Avoid biased writing (i.e. use neutral tone without favoring any one angle) ✓ Discuss all sides of the argument (i.e. multiple perspectives) to draw your stance from it ✓ Evaluate the credibility of your sources for major arguments ✓ List out the limitations of your work

4. Conduct Evidence-based Research

✓ Read current, relevant, and high-quality journal articles within your study subject ✓ Provide scholarly evidence from credible sources to support your points X Don’t simply re-state the findings of others; instead inform how it agrees/ disagrees with your findings ✓ Derive your original idea from the analysis of all your arguments

Detailed Guide on the Basic Rules of Academic Writing

1.      formal language.

In academic papers, avoid the use of informal language at all costs! This means, stay away from:

• slang words (such as “low-key” and “lit”)
• first person pronouns (such as “I” and “we”)
• contractions (such as “can’t” and “don’t”)
• adverbs of frequency (such as “always” and “never”)
• dramatic superlatives (such as “very” and “extremely”)

For example, instead of concluding “the results of the study are very confusing”, you can state “the results are inconclusive” to sound more balanced and sophisticated. That’s not it, there’s a whole list of taboo words that must never make its way into any academic paper, which you can read about further to make you avoid them, if possible.

However, do note that the use of first person may be acceptable, or even recommended, in reflection assignments , where the student is expected to reflect on their personal learning experience.

For example, when reflecting on the process undertaken during a research paper, you could state “I improved my time management skills through this research as I learned to break down bigger tasks into a series of smaller steps”. Unless recounting of your personal growth journey is a specific assignment requirement, for the most part, stick to a third person narrative in your paper! (here’s a detailed guide on how to write a reflection paper).

Plus, in terms of vocabulary, the use of appropriate technical terms relevant to your field of study will give readers the impression that you are knowledgeable and proficient in this subject . Show off to your readers that you are a pro at this. But of course, you also need to define such technical terms wherever necessary, in order to offer further insight to your readers. For example:

• if you are writing about water pollution, use scientific words like “bioaccumulation” and “biomagnification”
• if you are focusing on mergers and acquisitions, use industry-specific terms like “due diligence” and “hostile takeovers”
• if you are discussing “Super Bowl”, talk about “blitz” and “clothesline”

You should also break-up and connect long sentences with punctuations like semi-colon (;) and transition words like “however”, “nevertheless”, “although”, “moreover”, “furthermore”, etc. This can help readers understand the link between your points, while you simplify it for them. Thus, academic writing can be more complex than general writing, involving the use of complex sentences and technical jargon; for example, note how the sentences within this paragraph are broken down and linked using semi-colons and transition conjunctions, and how we drew the paragraph’s conclusion from it.

2.      Structured Writing

Academic writing is structured as it most often requires you to begin with an introduction stating the aims of the written piece, and end with a conclusion summarizing the key findings and implications. We have a dedicated guide focused on the basics of writing assignment structure which you can take a look at if you want to know all the relevant headings and subheadings that go into them, and what to write under each.

Examiners (who are your target readers, if you are a student) always look for your aims or topic sentence in the initial section, so that they know you are aware of the purpose of the assignment and what you hope to achieve. That’s why you need to spell out your aims clearly in your opening paragraphs to score that extra cookie point.

You also need to go one step further and section your paper using clear headings and subheadings within the body paragraphs, unless it is an essay or otherwise stated.Note: essays do not generally require sub-headings, but as with other academic papers, each paragraph must present a single theme or idea. That is, similar points should be clubbed together within the paragraph , supported by relevant evidences and examples, critical arguments, and key takeaways.

Also, try to be a good narrator – tell your story in a logical order! That means the paragraphs must flow one after the other in a sequence , without being abrupt, redundant or repetitive. This will ensure your readers are able to follow your trail of arguments and engage with your content, ultimately leading to the impression that your writing is structured and cohesive. A great way to logically structure your paper is to make an outline of topics to cover as your first step, by paying attention to your assignment brief or assignment requirements and drawing on the assignment rubric or marketing criteria.

(Click here to know how to structure your paper based on the marking criteria/ assignment rubric and what headings/ sub-headings to choose).

3.      Objectivity

There are always two sides to a story; but, as an academic writer and researcher, you need to remain impersonal, unbiased and search for the truth that lies somewhere in the middle-ground. That means, put aside your feelings, distance yourself from both sides, and write your paper as a third-party and neutral judge. Better yet, be an emotionless bot when it comes to representing facts, analyzing information and drawing interpretations.

But remember, your assignment is not just about stating the facts or listing out information taken from elsewhere. Although you will draw from the work of other scholars, you must also evaluate that information in your paper and correlate it with other similar studies, which may agree or disagree with your stance (see example below). By doing so, you would be showing objectively – that there are multiple perspectives and different sides to the argument, leading up to what you gather from all this by stating your clear point of view . Thus, you will be putting across your original idea in an objective and critical manner, as it is backed by evidence and balanced argument, rather than playing favoritism.

However, being completely objective in your paper is highly unlikely, as we have a subconscious tendency to subjectively select the text and sources which seem more suitable for our line of thinking. This introduces a certain level of research bias since your sources are not randomly chosen. But that’s okay, because you’re going to acknowledge this research flaw in your paper – let your reader know the limitations of your work . By being critical of your own research process in this manner, you can be sure that the examiner will notice your efforts to remain objective and will definitely grade you higher for it, as it sets your paper apart from others.

Although being objective is a general rule in academic writing, there are some exceptions where subjectivity is sought. For example, ethnographic and social researches draw on the personal interpretations of the author who observes a social phenomenon by living in or close to the studied society. In such a scenario, qualitative descriptive writing is adopted as the author seeks to describe the phenomenon and its impact on the society from a subjective/ personal point of view. Unless you are undertaking such a research, try to remain largely objective in your arguments to sound more systematic.

4.      Evidence-Based Research

The use of reliable evidence to support your arguments will be the biggest point-scoring tactic you can master. In fact, this will be the main criteria to pass your assignment, because your course almost always requires you to read journal articles published in your subject area . That’s why tutors often tell you Wikipedia is not a reliable source. (But how can you still use Wikipedia for your research, without actually putting it in your paper? We’ve made a dedicated guide for using Wikipedia for academic research (because let’s be honest – Wikipedia gives you tons of useful information).

In reality, you are expected to support the arguments in your paper by drawing from existing studies , statistics, market reports, news articles and other scholarly literature , by citing these sources as evidences (see the example below). Such a specific requirement to cite and reference academic sources for your arguments differentiates academic writing from other forms of writing.

When we talk about these sources as evidences, always remember to choose a variety of high-quality and current papers (published within 5 years) to support your own ideas. How many references should you use in your academic paper?

You may be wondering how many references you should have in an essay – we recommend integrating 6-8 references for every 1000 words in your paper , unless the number of references are explicitly requested in your assignment task. We cover this in more detail in this guide on how many references you should have in an essay .

Concluding remarks about referencing

A common mistake that most students make while integrating references is simply re-stating what the authors have published in their paper. To actually use them as supporting evidence, you need question the credibility, reliability and generalizability of their findings , by either critiquing the author’s research methods and techniques or by comparing or contrasting them with similar studies examining the same topic.

This tells the reader that you have not only read these papers, but you are also synthesizing and correlating information from different sources and analyzing them in order to draw your own original idea . Although this can be overwhelming for a novice academic writer, it is actually not that tricky to accomplish . For a more detailed understanding of this, you can read our post on some referencing guidelines to help you write a better paper.

We cover this issue and various other common mistakes in referencing in our separate guide. So be sure to check that out as well for a more comprehensive understanding about referencing as it is worth reiterating that this is the core aspect that differentiates academic writing from other forms of written content.

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• Academic writing

What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don’ts for Students

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays , research papers , and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

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Table of contents

Types of academic writing, academic writing is…, academic writing is not…, useful tools for academic writing, academic writing checklist.

Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.

Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help convey information as effectively as possible.

Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school , or build an academic career, effective writing is an essential skill.

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Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology  and being honest about the limitations of your research.

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal language , including slang, contractions , clichés, and conversational phrases:

• Also , a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
• Moreover , many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language :

• People have been interested in this thing for a long time .
• Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years .

Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:

• This could perhaps suggest that…
• This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:

• It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
• Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
• The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.

Focused and well structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement , and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Well sourced

Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous research.

It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.

You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism . A good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late.

You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:

• How to write numbers
• Introducing abbreviations
• Using verb tenses in different sections
• Capitalization of terms and headings
• Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before you submit. If you don’t feel confident in your own proofreading abilities, you can get help from Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or Grammar Checker .

Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:

• As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
• As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
• Teachers must treat their students fairly.

The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor.

When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:

• In my opinion…
• I think that…
• I like/dislike…
• I conducted interviews with…
• I argue that…
• I hope to achieve…

Long-winded

Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.

If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:

• Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018 .
• Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018 .

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

Emotive and grandiose

An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language :

• This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction history.
• The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction history.

Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated , unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:

• Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all subsequent literature is enormous.
• Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a significant influence on the development of the English novel.

There are a a lot of writing tools that will make your writing process faster and easier. We’ll highlight three of them below.

Paraphrasing tool

AI writing tools like ChatGPT and a paraphrasing tool can help you rewrite text so that your ideas are clearer, you don’t repeat yourself, and your writing has a consistent tone.

They can also help you write more clearly about sources without having to quote them directly. Be warned, though: it’s still crucial to give credit to all sources in the right way to prevent plagiarism .

Grammar checker

Writing tools that scan your text for punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes. When it detects a mistake the grammar checke r will give instant feedback and suggest corrections. Helping you write clearly and avoid common mistakes .

You can use a summarizer if you want to condense text into its most important and useful ideas. With a summarizer tool, you can make it easier to understand complicated sources. You can also use the tool to make your research question clearer and summarize your main argument.

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Use the checklist below to assess whether you have followed the rules of effective academic writing.

• Checklist: Academic writing

I avoid informal terms and contractions .

I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”).

I avoid emotive or exaggerated language.

I avoid redundant words and phrases.

I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.

I present information as precisely and accurately as possible.

I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas.

My text is logically organized using paragraphs .

Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question .

I support my claims with evidence.

I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section.

I consistently use either UK or US English .

I format numbers consistently.

I cite my sources using a consistent citation style .

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Word Choice

What this handout is about.

This handout can help you revise your papers for word-level clarity, eliminate wordiness and avoid clichés, find the words that best express your ideas, and choose words that suit an academic audience.

Introduction

Writing is a series of choices. As you work on a paper, you choose your topic, your approach, your sources, and your thesis; when it’s time to write, you have to choose the words you will use to express your ideas and decide how you will arrange those words into sentences and paragraphs. As you revise your draft, you make more choices. You might ask yourself, “Is this really what I mean?” or “Will readers understand this?” or “Does this sound good?” Finding words that capture your meaning and convey that meaning to your readers is challenging. When your instructors write things like “awkward,” “vague,” or “wordy” on your draft, they are letting you know that they want you to work on word choice. This handout will explain some common issues related to word choice and give you strategies for choosing the best words as you revise your drafts.

As you read further into the handout, keep in mind that it can sometimes take more time to “save” words from your original sentence than to write a brand new sentence to convey the same meaning or idea. Don’t be too attached to what you’ve already written; if you are willing to start a sentence fresh, you may be able to choose words with greater clarity.

For tips on making more substantial revisions, take a look at our handouts on reorganizing drafts and revising drafts .

“Awkward,” “vague,” and “unclear” word choice

So: you write a paper that makes perfect sense to you, but it comes back with “awkward” scribbled throughout the margins. Why, you wonder, are instructors so fond of terms like “awkward”? Most instructors use terms like this to draw your attention to sentences they had trouble understanding and to encourage you to rewrite those sentences more clearly.

Difficulties with word choice aren’t the only cause of awkwardness, vagueness, or other problems with clarity. Sometimes a sentence is hard to follow because there is a grammatical problem with it or because of the syntax (the way the words and phrases are put together). Here’s an example: “Having finished with studying, the pizza was quickly eaten.” This sentence isn’t hard to understand because of the words I chose—everybody knows what studying, pizza, and eating are. The problem here is that readers will naturally assume that first bit of the sentence “(Having finished with studying”) goes with the next noun that follows it—which, in this case, is “the pizza”! It doesn’t make a lot of sense to imply that the pizza was studying. What I was actually trying to express was something more like this: “Having finished with studying, the students quickly ate the pizza.” If you have a sentence that has been marked “awkward,” “vague,” or “unclear,” try to think about it from a reader’s point of view—see if you can tell where it changes direction or leaves out important information.

Sometimes, though, problems with clarity are a matter of word choice. See if you recognize any of these issues:

• Misused words —the word doesn’t actually mean what the writer thinks it does. Example : Cree Indians were a monotonous culture until French and British settlers arrived. Revision: Cree Indians were a homogenous culture.
• Words with unwanted connotations or meanings. Example : I sprayed the ants in their private places. Revision: I sprayed the ants in their hiding places.
• Using a pronoun when readers can’t tell whom/what it refers to. Example : My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though he didn’t like him very much. Revision: My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though Jake doesn’t like Trey very much.
• Jargon or technical terms that make readers work unnecessarily hard. Maybe you need to use some of these words because they are important terms in your field, but don’t throw them in just to “sound smart.” Example : The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishment Catholics offers an algorithm for deontological thought. Revision : The dialogue between neo-Platonists and certain Catholic thinkers is a model for deontological thought.
• Loaded language. Sometimes we as writers know what we mean by a certain word, but we haven’t ever spelled that out for readers. We rely too heavily on that word, perhaps repeating it often, without clarifying what we are talking about. Example : Society teaches young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change society. Revision : Contemporary American popular media, like magazines and movies, teach young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change the images and role models girls are offered.

Sometimes the problem isn’t choosing exactly the right word to express an idea—it’s being “wordy,” or using words that your reader may regard as “extra” or inefficient. Take a look at the following list for some examples. On the left are some phrases that use three, four, or more words where fewer will do; on the right are some shorter substitutes:

Keep an eye out for wordy constructions in your writing and see if you can replace them with more concise words or phrases.

In academic writing, it’s a good idea to limit your use of clichés. Clichés are catchy little phrases so frequently used that they have become trite, corny, or annoying. They are problematic because their overuse has diminished their impact and because they require several words where just one would do.

The main way to avoid clichés is first to recognize them and then to create shorter, fresher equivalents. Ask yourself if there is one word that means the same thing as the cliché. If there isn’t, can you use two or three words to state the idea your own way? Below you will see five common clichés, with some alternatives to their right. As a challenge, see how many alternatives you can create for the final two examples.

Try these yourself:

Writing for an academic audience

When you choose words to express your ideas, you have to think not only about what makes sense and sounds best to you, but what will make sense and sound best to your readers. Thinking about your audience and their expectations will help you make decisions about word choice.

Some writers think that academic audiences expect them to “sound smart” by using big or technical words. But the most important goal of academic writing is not to sound smart—it is to communicate an argument or information clearly and convincingly. It is true that academic writing has a certain style of its own and that you, as a student, are beginning to learn to read and write in that style. You may find yourself using words and grammatical constructions that you didn’t use in your high school writing. The danger is that if you consciously set out to “sound smart” and use words or structures that are very unfamiliar to you, you may produce sentences that your readers can’t understand.

When writing for your professors, think simplicity. Using simple words does not indicate simple thoughts. In an academic argument paper, what makes the thesis and argument sophisticated are the connections presented in simple, clear language.

Keep in mind, though, that simple and clear doesn’t necessarily mean casual. Most instructors will not be pleased if your paper looks like an instant message or an email to a friend. It’s usually best to avoid slang and colloquialisms. Take a look at this example and ask yourself how a professor would probably respond to it if it were the thesis statement of a paper: “Moulin Rouge really bit because the singing sucked and the costume colors were nasty, KWIM?”

Selecting and using key terms

When writing academic papers, it is often helpful to find key terms and use them within your paper as well as in your thesis. This section comments on the crucial difference between repetition and redundancy of terms and works through an example of using key terms in a thesis statement.

Repetition vs. redundancy

These two phenomena are not necessarily the same. Repetition can be a good thing. Sometimes we have to use our key terms several times within a paper, especially in topic sentences. Sometimes there is simply no substitute for the key terms, and selecting a weaker term as a synonym can do more harm than good. Repeating key terms emphasizes important points and signals to the reader that the argument is still being supported. This kind of repetition can give your paper cohesion and is done by conscious choice.

In contrast, if you find yourself frustrated, tiredly repeating the same nouns, verbs, or adjectives, or making the same point over and over, you are probably being redundant. In this case, you are swimming aimlessly around the same points because you have not decided what your argument really is or because you are truly fatigued and clarity escapes you. Refer to the “Strategies” section below for ideas on revising for redundancy.

Building clear thesis statements

Writing clear sentences is important throughout your writing. For the purposes of this handout, let’s focus on the thesis statement—one of the most important sentences in academic argument papers. You can apply these ideas to other sentences in your papers.

A common problem with writing good thesis statements is finding the words that best capture both the important elements and the significance of the essay’s argument. It is not always easy to condense several paragraphs or several pages into concise key terms that, when combined in one sentence, can effectively describe the argument.

However, taking the time to find the right words offers writers a significant edge. Concise and appropriate terms will help both the writer and the reader keep track of what the essay will show and how it will show it. Graders, in particular, like to see clearly stated thesis statements. (For more on thesis statements in general, please refer to our handout .)

Example : You’ve been assigned to write an essay that contrasts the river and shore scenes in Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn. You work on it for several days, producing three versions of your thesis:

Version 1 : There are many important river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn.

Version 2 : The contrasting river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn suggest a return to nature.

Version 3 : Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

Let’s consider the word choice issues in these statements. In Version 1, the word “important”—like “interesting”—is both overused and vague; it suggests that the author has an opinion but gives very little indication about the framework of that opinion. As a result, your reader knows only that you’re going to talk about river and shore scenes, but not what you’re going to say. Version 2 is an improvement: the words “return to nature” give your reader a better idea where the paper is headed. On the other hand, they still do not know how this return to nature is crucial to your understanding of the novel.

Finally, you come up with Version 3, which is a stronger thesis because it offers a sophisticated argument and the key terms used to make this argument are clear. At least three key terms or concepts are evident: the contrast between river and shore scenes, a return to nature, and American democratic ideals.

By itself, a key term is merely a topic—an element of the argument but not the argument itself. The argument, then, becomes clear to the reader through the way in which you combine key terms.

Strategies for successful word choice

• Be careful when using words you are unfamiliar with. Look at how they are used in context and check their dictionary definitions.
• Be careful when using the thesaurus. Each word listed as a synonym for the word you’re looking up may have its own unique connotations or shades of meaning. Use a dictionary to be sure the synonym you are considering really fits what you are trying to say.
• Under the present conditions of our society, marriage practices generally demonstrate a high degree of homogeneity.
• In our culture, people tend to marry others who are like themselves. (Longman, p. 452)
• Before you revise for accurate and strong adjectives, make sure you are first using accurate and strong nouns and verbs. For example, if you were revising the sentence “This is a good book that tells about the Revolutionary War,” think about whether “book” and “tells” are as strong as they could be before you worry about “good.” (A stronger sentence might read “The novel describes the experiences of a soldier during the Revolutionary War.” “Novel” tells us what kind of book it is, and “describes” tells us more about how the book communicates information.)
• Try the slash/option technique, which is like brainstorming as you write. When you get stuck, write out two or more choices for a questionable word or a confusing sentence, e.g., “questionable/inaccurate/vague/inappropriate.” Pick the word that best indicates your meaning or combine different terms to say what you mean.
• Look for repetition. When you find it, decide if it is “good” repetition (using key terms that are crucial and helpful to meaning) or “bad” repetition (redundancy or laziness in reusing words).
• Write your thesis in five different ways. Make five different versions of your thesis sentence. Compose five sentences that express your argument. Try to come up with four alternatives to the thesis sentence you’ve already written. Find five possible ways to communicate your argument in one sentence to your reader. (We’ve just used this technique—which of the last five sentences do you prefer?)Whenever we write a sentence we make choices. Some are less obvious than others, so that it can often feel like we’ve written the sentence the only way we know how. By writing out five different versions of your thesis, you can begin to see your range of choices. The final version may be a combination of phrasings and words from all five versions, or the one version that says it best. By literally spelling out some possibilities for yourself, you will be able to make better decisions.
• Read your paper out loud and at… a… slow… pace. You can do this alone or with a friend, roommate, TA, etc. When read out loud, your written words should make sense to both you and other listeners. If a sentence seems confusing, rewrite it to make the meaning clear.
• Instead of reading the paper itself, put it down and just talk through your argument as concisely as you can. If your listener quickly and easily comprehends your essay’s main point and significance, you should then make sure that your written words are as clear as your oral presentation was. If, on the other hand, your listener keeps asking for clarification, you will need to work on finding the right terms for your essay. If you do this in exchange with a friend or classmate, rest assured that whether you are the talker or the listener, your articulation skills will develop.
• Have someone not familiar with the issue read the paper and point out words or sentences they find confusing. Do not brush off this reader’s confusion by assuming they simply doesn’t know enough about the topic. Instead, rewrite the sentences so that your “outsider” reader can follow along at all times.
• Check out the Writing Center’s handouts on style , passive voice , and proofreading for more tips.

Questions to ask yourself

• Am I sure what each word I use really means? Am I positive, or should I look it up?
• Have I found the best word or just settled for the most obvious, or the easiest, one?
• Am I trying too hard to impress my reader?
• What’s the easiest way to write this sentence? (Sometimes it helps to answer this question by trying it out loud. How would you say it to someone?)
• What are the key terms of my argument?
• Can I outline out my argument using only these key terms? What others do I need? Which do I not need?
• Have I created my own terms, or have I simply borrowed what looked like key ones from the assignment? If I’ve borrowed the terms, can I find better ones in my own vocabulary, the texts, my notes, the dictionary, or the thesaurus to make myself clearer?
• Are my key terms too specific? (Do they cover the entire range of my argument?) Can I think of specific examples from my sources that fall under the key term?
• Are my key terms too vague? (Do they cover more than the range of my argument?)

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Cook, Claire Kehrwald. 1985. Line by Line: How to Improve Your Own Writing . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Grossman, Ellie. 1997. The Grammatically Correct Handbook: A Lively and Unorthodox Review of Common English for the Linguistically Challenged . New York: Hyperion.

Houghton Mifflin. 1996. The American Heritage Book of English Usage: A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

O’Conner, Patricia. 2010. Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe’s Guide to Better English in Plain English , 3rd ed. New York: Penguin Publishing Group.

Tarshis, Barry. 1998. How to Be Your Own Best Editor: The Toolkit for Everyone Who Writes . New York: Three Rivers Press.

Williams, Joseph, and Joseph Bizup. 2017. Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace , 12th ed. Boston: Pearson.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to use deliberate practice to improve your writing

Last week, as one of my last duties as research fellow at RMIT before I take up my new role at ANU, I hosted two seminars – one from Prof Anthony Pare from McGill and the other from Prof Helen Sword , the writer of the wonderful “Stylish Academic Writing” .

Helen and Anthony had many interesting observations about the process of learning to write, but both made the same basic point: very few of us have formal instruction in how to write like an academic .

As Anthony Pare pointed out, when you write essays as an undergraduate you are ‘eavesdropping’ on expert conversation; as a PhD student you are expected to be a part of that conversation. Writing for a teacher is easier than writing for your peers because the expectations are clearer. This is why many PhD students experience what he calls the “J curve” : a rapid drop in confidence, but a long term upswing as this new kind of writing practice is mastered.

Helen Sword explained that we pick up most of what we know about academic writing informally , from our supervisors and from reading; this learning process is adhoc, idiosyncratic and individualised. Informal learning has benefits, but generally speaking it’s harder to reach expert level unless you really push yourself. Helen noted that many people don’t even consult writing books or take advantage of the free advice on the web and therefore never reach an expert level.

One of the ways to push yourself to become a better writer is to engage in deliberate practice , a term I encountered in Cal Newport’s recent book “So good they can’t ignore you” (an excellent read by the way). Deliberate practice is a way of consistently stretching yourself out of your comfort zone and thereby increasing your skill.

I thought I’d expand on some of the concepts of deliberate practice via my own recent experience with exercise. Like many academics I’m not very body conscious, but I do try to be active because I know I’m built to survive famines and easily put on weight. In the past I have been into swimming and lifting weights at the gym; solo exercise sessions where I can be alone with my pain.

The first thing Joyce suggested we try was a Zumba Fitness class. I’ll admit, I was not super enthusiastic. All I knew about Zumba was dance videos full of impossibly swelte people, wearing 80’s outfits and fluorescent shoes, swinging their dreadlocks around to Latin dance music. I told Joyce I didn’t like Latin dance music , mostly because of the accordions, but I went along with it.

Colour me surprised when I discovered that I LOVE Zumba. I don’t want you to get the impression I love Zumba because I am good at it, because I’m really not. I am so bad at it it’s laughable.

I laugh when I watch myself do awkward white girl dancing in the mirror and I laugh at the insanely silly accordian music. Laughing helps me stick with it because earning Zumba is not easy. According to the wikipedia entry , Zumba involves a mix of

“ hip-hop , soca , samba , salsa , merengue , mambo , martial arts , and some Bollywood and belly dance moves”

In other words, it’s complicated. In case you’ve been under a rock for the last decade, this video gives you an idea of what it looks like:

The hardest part of Zumba, for me, is how unfamiliar the movements feel : I’ve danced before, but not like this. Writing like an academic used to unfamiliar too; both like and unlike any writing I had done before. Anthony Pare shared a quote from a PhD student who compared ‘academese’ to a foreign language. This is a nice description because part of the PhD process is learning to adopt a new kind of scholarly voic e.

It takes time to be comfortable speaking ‘academese’ because it’s profoundly unnatural. The longer you persist at academic writing however, the more natural it will feel, so don’t wait until you are writing chapters or journal papers to start ‘speaking like an academic’. Practice this new academic voice as you take notes.

One way to do this is by paying close attention to the verbs . For example, if you were taking notes from this blog post, instead of writing:

“Learning Zumba is an example of deliberate practice in action”

You could write:

“Inger Mewburn argues that learning Zumba is an example of deliberate practice in action”

Including the verb ‘argues’ implies what Kamler and Thomson would call a ‘hands on hips’ stance. By pointing out that I am making an argument, as opposed to, for example, stating a fact, you are taking a position on what I am saying, rather than just copying it down.

If you were to take a deliberate practice approach, you would look to how you could extend this ‘positioning’ of yourself. For example, you could rewrite the note and include some of your own thoughts, like this:

“Inger (2012) claims that learning to do Zumba is an example of deliberate practice in action. While Zumba is difficult to master, and it may take time to get the basics down right, what Inger fails to realise is that learning Zumba is not at all like learning to write. For one thing, you need a computer, not fluorescent shoes.”

That’s pretty good – can you see what I just did? I just wrote a bit of a thesis in that note. I took a position on what Inger was saying about Zumba and I pointed out the tenuous, even ridiculous, connection between Zumba and writing.

In academic writing, how you say what you say is as important as what you say. Verbs are judgmental. By shifting the verb ‘argues’ (a neutral kind of verb) to the more aggressive ‘claims’ (a verb which implies I have not used enough evidence) I created what you might call a ‘meta text ‘: signalling to the reader what I think about Inger’s statements about Zumba, without directly saying it.

The verbs I used in the above example lent my writing a negative critical stance. Deliberate practice involves repeating the same activity over and over, but striving to be better each time . So you could try adjusting your stance to see if you can improve on it. For example, I could try again, keeping my note critical, but using my verbs in a kinder way, starting with a positive verb like this:

“Inger (2012) explains how Zumba can be thought of as an example of deliberate practice in action. Her comparison between writing and Zumba is tenuous, but her main point is clear: both are complicated and take a long time to learn. In addition, fluorescent shoes look great – on writers as well as Zumba lovers.”

Shifting backwards and forwards between positive and negative stances in your notes is like working on Zumba step technique: it helps you to move your thinking around and make it more flexible.

Using your notes as a place to deliberately practice academic writing has two main benefits. It’s ‘low stakes’ writing; since you are the only audience for your notes, you can try out different points of view and play with ideas. Secondly, taking notes with verbs helps you to form ‘mini chunks’ of text that can be cut and pasted into your thesis, saving you time.

Look for tools to support your deliberate practice. For example, I keep a list of verbs on my wall so that I make sure to use a wide variety of them in my writing and thereby produce more sophisticated metatext. I make a point of regularly looking up the precise meaning of verbs I use , even familiar ones, in order to keep my writing precise.

Deliberate practice can increase enjoyment along with skill . After months of deliberate Zumba practice I was shocked to discover I had over 2 hours of Zumba music in my iTunes library… many with incredibly silly accordion riffs. Apparently I no longer hate Latin music or accordions! If you find writing painful now, you might find with a bit of deliberate practice you will start enjoying it in a whole new way.

Is there a skill you have learned through deliberate practice, such as playing an instrument? Are there times you have failed to keep up a skill or never really progressed to expert? Why? I’d love to hear your own insights on deliberate practice in the comments.

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How to Write an Academic Paragraph (Step-by-Step Guide)

Unlike creative writing or day-to-day writing, academic writing is highly focused on critical analysis, is typically based on research, and adheres to strict academic conventions. In academic writing, every paragraph seeks to serve the purpose of discussing and sharing information on scientific or scholarly topics with a focused academic community. That is why it is important that each sentence within a paragraph should be relevant and flow in a logically correct and engaging narrative.    

There are different elements that constitute an academic paragraph. Each of these elements works together to present concepts, ideas, and innovative new developments in a coherent manner. Let’s take a look at how to craft an impactful academic paragraph.   

How to write an academic paragraph?  

Any academic writing is centered on a well-formulated main idea or argument. This main idea needs to be developed further, or a research question needs to be answered in a systematic and logical manner. Such a process entails identifying and building points along with relevant supporting evidence to support the main idea.   

In academic writing, the discussion of each of these points is done in separate paragraphs. To aid this process, an outline of your academic assignment can be prepared that helps organize your thoughts and ideas and list the various points or topic sentences to build your argument. A well-articulated and strong paragraph can be developed by ensuring that it contains certain key elements, as discussed below.   

Topic sentence

Each paragraph can have a topic sentence at or near its start. The topic sentence is basically the main point that you will be focusing on in the paragraph. The scope of the topic sentence should be such that it can be discussed and developed in a single paragraph. In reading the topic sentence, the reader should get an idea of the focus of the paragraph.    

Significance

The significance of the point that is being discussed in the paragraph should come out clearly in the ensuing body sentences. This allows readers to understand how it relates to the overall article, thesis, or dissertation.   

What you state in the topic sentence should be backed by evidence. This will depend on your topic, discipline, and nature of the assignment. Evidence can include information drawn from primary sources, such as surveys or interviews that were conducted as part of the study, while secondary sources typically include personal experience based on practice, such as education. You must assess how much evidence needs to be provided to substantiate and prove your point.   

In the rest of the body sentences, the focus should be on your interpretation and analysis of the data and evidence, how these support your argument and the main thesis, and how it is building up to your conclusion. The paragraph can be wrapped up in a concluding sentence that underlines the implications of the evidence.   

4 strategies to enhance academic paragraphs     

In order to achieve clarity and coherence, every paragraph must advance the reader’s understanding of the topic, provide evidence or support for the main argument, and establish connections between ideas. Without this deliberate organization and structure, academic writing can become disjointed, confusing, and less persuasive.   

Using the right transition words

The main purpose of paragraphs is to provide logical sequencing to your ideas and main points. Hence, in moving from one point to another through paragraphs, the use of transition sentences helps in linking ideas presented in one paragraph to the next and previous ones. Transition sentences are usually used either at the beginning or the end of a paragraph.    

Adding citations and references

Where supporting evidence is provided from secondary sources, it is crucial to provide citations and references to acknowledge original sources and avoid the risk of plagiarism.    

Ensuring cohesion and flow

Each sentence in the paragraph should be relevant to the point you are conveying. Hence, while writing a paragraph, make sure that you have a topic sentence, body sentences which develop the ideas and provide evidence and interpretation, a linking sentence that links the point to the overall thesis of the assignment, and appropriate transitions. Then, evaluate whether these provide a cohesive whole and logical flow.   

Ideal length

The ideal length of a paragraph varies between 200 and 300 words, but it can be more. Ensure that a paragraph is neither too long nor too short and that there are sufficient explanations and analysis. Overly lengthy paragraphs with huge volumes of information tend to distract and confuse readers from the main argument.   

Once the paragraph has been written, a close reading is needed to assess whether the core idea is being communicated logically and if there is sufficient evidence and analysis. Each paragraph must link seamlessly with the previous ones using transitions. See that each sentence is conveyed coherently and relevant and that the thread of the argument is flowing clearly. By following the basic structure and key elements of academic paragraphs and implementing strategies to enhance clarity, cohesion, and flow, writers can effectively communicate their ideas and engage with scholarly discourse.  

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Writing a Paper: Understanding Arguments

Facione (2010) defined analysis as the ability “to identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions” (p. 6). The process of analyzing involves breaking a piece of work apart, examining what the elements mean separately, and figuring out how they are related to each other, with the goal of understanding the meaning of the work as a whole.

Written material is composed of words that make up sentences, which in turn make up paragraphs, which in turn make up chapters, and so forth (Kurland, 2002). The elements in a well written text will be logically organized and a reader’s approach to analyzing them will generally depend on the reader’s goals and the primary themes that interest them. For example, a psychologist’s analysis of a work on mental health will differ from that of a psychiatrist or theologian. The first may focus on the behavioral aspects, the second on the clinical or biological aspects, and the third on spiritual aspects. Because scholarly literature is generally written by researchers or experts who wish to contribute to the knowledge of a particular subject, it is to be analyzed as an argument or communication within that particular social context.

The reader’s analysis can focus on three aspects: content, language, and structure (Kurland, 2002). When analyzing the content one may ask the following questions:

• Whom is the author addressing?
• What is the author’s purpose?
• What evidence is used to support the author’s argument?
• What is the context of the work?

When analyzing the structure of the argument, one would ask questions such as:

• How is the argument built? What comes first?
• Do the points follow a logical sequence or timeline?
• How did the author divide the sections?
• Did the author present a problem and its solution?
• Did the author use a compare and contrast analysis?

When analyzing the language, one would ask questions such as:

• What is the tone?
• Does the word selection reveal any biases?
• Is the language clear and vigorous?

As you analyze the text, it is also important to make connections between what you are reading and what you already know. Are any of the points made in conflict with your worldview or perhaps in conflict with the views of other respected scholars in the field? Is the text significant? If so, what makes it significant? Does it make a worthwhile contribution to the field?

The act of inferring is an important component of the critical reading process as it involves making judgments and drawing conclusions. A report published by the National Foundation for Educational Research (2008) found that a reader’s ability to make correct inferences resulted in (a) better reading comprehension, (b) an appreciation of their relationship to the writer and the text, (c) and reading and thinking critically. An inference (Merriam-Webster, n.d.) is defined as “the act of passing from one proposition, statement, or judgment considered as true to another whose truth is believed to follow from that of the former.” Facione (2010) provided a more comprehensive definition; he defined it as being able to

identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to deduce the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation. (p. 6)

When inferring, the central question is: “What is the author really saying?” Inferences are made in everyday communication often without much thought. For instance, a husband may tell his wife “do not forget the girls.” From this simple statement the wife may infer several things that are not explicitly stated. She may infer that (a) he is referring to their two daughters, and/or (b) he is reminding her to pick them up from some place. Inference involves reading between the lines. To help her decide what her husband means, she relies primarily on the context, that is, what she already knows and what is most logical: he is her husband, and they have two teenage daughters who are out with friends. One could infer that by girls he is referring to random women; however, in this particular context, that inference though logical is unreasonable. Thus, for inferences to be accurate they must be sensitive to the context.

Making inferences, particularly when one does not have the benefit of a close personal relationship with the author or intimate knowledge of the author’s views, can be tricky and it requires a great deal of care. Like the husband in the example above, writers are trying to communicate a point and the reader combines the words, assesses how they are related to each other, and tries to understand the ideas or meaning behind the words. Readers will generally rely on indicators or clues within the text and prior knowledge and assumptions to make inferences. This process is thus both intuitive and deliberate, and care must be taken when using prior knowledge. Making inferences based primarily on the text will yield the most useful benefits for a reader of academic literature.

Readers must also note that there is a difference between a reasonable inference and a correct one. One may make reasonable inferences based on a text and prior knowledge; however, these may not be correct. One way of ensuring that one’s inferences are correct is to review the evidence and try to determine whether specific reasons can be given to justify the conclusions that have been drawn. Inferences are, after all, speculations that are based on evidence. They are not quite the product of deductive reasoning, so it is not unusual for two people to read the same material and make different inferences. The following example demonstrates this point: two people may see a man in tattered clothing lying in a gutter and from this one may infer that the man is homeless and the other that the man needs help; the first assumes only homeless people lie in gutters while the second assumes that a person lying in a gutter needs help (Paul, 1995). Note that Paul’s (1995) example also illustrates the intimate relationship between inferences and assumptions. The key to making valid inferences is thus a careful evaluation of the evidence. Kurland’s (2000) principle “the more evidence we have before us, and the more carefully we reason, the more valid our inferences” is apt. As you read and think through written material, it is important to also pay attention to the assumptions that underlie the inferences you make.

Assumptions

An assumption is a statement or fact that is taken for granted. It has also been defined as an element that “bridges the gap between an argument’s stated evidence and conclusion … a piece of support that isn’t explicitly stated but that is required for the conclusion to be valid” (Kaplan, 2008, p. 30). Although inferences and assumptions are not identical, they are related in that inferences often find a basis in what is assumed. Understanding assumptions is thus a crucial component of the critical reading process because it enables the reader to:

• Identify what is holding an argument together.
• Identify strengths and weaknesses of an argument.
• Find possible points of critique.

Finding hidden assumptions can be tricky, especially when one is reading dense academic literature. However, identifying them is important because most logical flaws are rooted problematic assumptions. Here are a few strategies one can employ to identify assumptions:

• Evaluate the argument and determine whether it is valid. If it is not, what additional premises should be provided to make it so?
• Look for the gap in the argument. Is there a piece of information missing that may explain how the author concluded X from Y?
• Find a significant counterexample to the point made. This will enable one to identify what the author ignored.
• Assess the terms and categories. What meanings are ascribed to key terms? Are the meanings reasonable and justified? Do they reveal any biases?

Interpretation

Ultimately, the goal of the reading process is to understand the overall meaning of the text. A writer may paint a picture for the reader, but it is ultimately the reader who ascribes meaning to what is read. The meaning ascribed to the text will be influenced by the reader’s biases, knowledge of other literature, inferences, and so forth. Interpretation has to do with making sense of or assigning meaning to something. Facione (2010) defined it as the ability “to comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria” (p. 5). It involves the ability to determine what is significant, recognize and describe a problem without bias, making distinctions between main ideas and subideas, and so forth (Facione, 2010). This skill is particularly important for graduate school students because of the sheer volume of reading that is expected of them and because much of academic writing involves synthesizing the ideas of multiple authors. To be able to perform these tasks effectively, one must be able to interpret texts. A key skill involved in interpretation is the ability to summarize. When one can summarize each paragraph or each key point, one is on the way to effectively interpreting the overall meaning of the text. However, this is only the beginning as one must also be able to draw out the implications of the author’s arguments.

Implications

An implication is a conclusion drawn from some facts. In making connections between the text and the world, it is important to think about the possible consequences that might result if the author’s views are accurate. This, however, must be done carefully in order to avoid falling into the slippery-slope problem, in which one assumes without warrant that a given action will result in a series of increasingly undesirable consequences. For instance, an instructor may argue that he/she cannot make an exception for a particular student because he/she will have to make an exception for all students. This, however, need not be the case as the conclusion/consequence does not logically follow from the premise/action.

Implications provide useful material for critiquing or undermining arguments, so recognizing and drawing them out is an important component of the critical reading process. Drawing implications must begin with an understanding of the facts that are explicitly stated and the conclusions drawn by the author.

Facione, P. (2010). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts . http://www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/what&why2006.pdf

Kaplan. (2007). LSAT comprehensive program (2008 ed.).

Kispal, A. (2008). Effective teaching of inference skills for reading (Report No. DCSF-RR031). National Foundation for Educational Research. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED501868.pdf

Kurland, D. (2010). The fundamentals of critical reading and effective writing . http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm

Paul, R. (1995). Why students and teachers do not reason well. In J. Wilson & A. J. A. Binker (Eds.), Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world (3rd ed., pp. 151-178). Foundation for Critical Thinking.

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4 Chapter 4: Drafting a Paper

For many years now, most instruction on student writing tends to focus on process instead of product. Students frequently struggle to get their thoughts together, and as assignment that simply involves an essay with a single deadline can often set a student up for failure. Sometimes, a college paper will have a set of checkpoints built in (a proposal due by a certain day, followed by a draft due by another day, and so on). At other times, students have to provide this structure themselves.

Drafting consists of putting together ideas in a format that a reader will be able to understand. Ideally, a draft will allow a reader to follow the thought process of the writer while still satisfying the reader’s curiosity or interest in particular topics (or subtopics) of a given subject.

Overview:  A lot of teachers remember writing essays using a combination of notecards, annotated bibliographies, and outlines. Others might have experienced peer workshops and drafting. Many teachers, however, have not had the need to sit down and think about why these steps are necessary. Some teachers might not even have accepted that the steps are necessary.

On a functional level, focusing on the process of writing (instead of just the final essay) gives students a chance to organize and to develop their ideas. It also allows teachers a chance to determine when or where a student has encountered difficulties.

Application:  Most writing has steps, and even if those steps vary from class to class or from assignment to assignment, time needs to be built into both teacher and student schedules to finish each of these steps. Additionally, it tends to be more rewarding for students and teachers alike if at least a single checkpoint is built into the writing process (e.g. a proposal that is due, a bibliography that is turned in, or a draft that is contemplated by classmates).

A student in a class without these built-in checkpoints needs to work hard to develop them, and students in such classes really need to create their own chances to talk with faculty about their progress. On the other hand, faculty who lack the time or the ability to build in these checkpoints need to be understanding of the difficulties students will face with completion and with the development of their ideas.

What to Avoid:  Don’t think of an essay as something that happens in a single sitting or at a single moment in time.

LENGTH versus DEPTH

Students, teachers, tutors, and online study guides all get it wrong. When we talk about essays, we really shouldn’t talk about how long an essay is; we should talk about how deep an essay is. Plenty of essays can be fairly long without making a valid argument, but it’s a lot less likely for an essay to be short and to still include everything that it needs.

Overview:  Imagine typing the same sentence over and over again until it filled six pages. Does that fulfill the requirement of a six-page essay? Maybe it does, but only in the minds of those deliberately trying to undermine the learning environment. Likewise, imagine writing just one sentence that happens to make a valid factual claim and turning it in for the six-page assignment. Isn’t that one valid claim enough? Shouldn’t the ‘essay’ be judged on quality instead of quantity?

Not really. Both of these fictional student responses to an assignment overlook the idea of development. Take a moment to think about the reasons a teacher might have for assigning an essay. Most of the time, when college instructors are asked why they assign essays, they give the same basic answers: essay assignments are designed to check a student’s knowledge of an issue, to require a student to think critically about course content, and to improve the ability of a student to put course content into a broader context. Neither the ‘repeat the same content over and over again’ example nor the ‘cut all of the content down to the shortest possible answer’ example fulfills these goals.

Application:  In order to demonstrate knowledge of an issue, a student needs to be able to explain that issue (in this case, in writing) in a way that is clear. Simply copying and pasting the Wikipedia entry doesn’t display this knowledge any more than driving through a fast-food restaurant displays an understanding of cooking. This is why even with proper source citation, direct quotation tends to be less meaningful than a student paraphrasing content into his or her own words—the first simply checks a box, while the second requires a bit more understanding.

Likewise, writing an essay about the content of a course usually requires the student to support a claim about one of the subjects the course covers (an essay needs a thesis, or something like a thesis). However, the real length of a good essay does not come from repeating the same point. It comes from developing an idea. Frequently, students are expected to show their work. In math, students are asked to explain how they reached the answers. In argument, students are expected to explain what evidence, and what reasoning, supports their theses. For students who really struggle to find ideas, both the Toulmin model and the scientific method offer suggestions for how such essays can be structured.

What to Avoid:  Try not to think of an essay as an attempt to explain why you, personally, support your main claim. Instead, think of an essay as an effort to demonstrate the knowledge and understanding that went into reaching a conclusion.

ORGANIZATION

If you have ever had a discussion end only to think, five minutes or five hours later, “oh, I should have said ______,” then you understand how frustrating it can be to try to organize an essay. Our best thoughts rarely occur to us when they are most useful, and even good ideas can seem silly when they are stranded without support or context. This is why organization is key for college-level essays.

Overview:  One of the most frustrating things about writing anything, let alone writing essays for a grade, is how difficult it can be to organize thoughts into a meaningful form. Many different strategies have been proposed, and most of them work a little bit. One thing that seldom works is for a writer to keep all of the thoughts on the screen in the order those thoughts happen to drift through his or her head. However, the solution is rarely as simple as ‘outlining’ a potential essay in advance. Instead, organizing an essay requires understanding its goals.

An essay that is asking for a student to demonstrate an understanding of course content should probably focus most of its body on that course content, with very little ‘off topic’ on external material. On the other hand, an essay that specifically asks students to contextualize their writing should probably split its content much more evenly, with frequent connections being drawn between lecture notes, the textbook, and the broader world.

Application:  Students writing college-level essays should remember their readers. Information should be presented with the mindset of explaining related facts to someone who wants to understand why the essay presents its thesis or central claim.

Writers of college essays have a major advantage over writers of professional documents. A writing assignment given by an instructor is almost certainly possible (not easy, but possible). Other students have likely struggled with and completed the assignment before. However, this advantage also has a downside—instructors grading college-level essays have seen good and bad versions before. They already have their own preferences. Be sure to ask about and to include these preferences in your own writing. Remember that it is not your place to organize your essay the way you prefer; it is your responsibility to organize the essay in a way your reader will think makes sense.

What to Avoid:  Don’t think of organization as a one-time thing. It is a process. Students need to set aside time to evaluate how their essays are organizes as they write them.

TRANSITIONS AND PARAGRAPHING

Even if you have a good, general idea of how you want to organize your thoughts, it can be difficult to move from major idea to major idea. It can be even harder to decide which ideas belong together.

Overview:  Whenever you’re trying to get somewhere new, you need directions. Whether you look at a map, read road signs, or have a navigation system guiding you, you need to know ‘what’s next.’ Reading an essay also requires guidance.

It is the responsibility of the author of an essay to explain how two different ideas relate. Transitions are supposed function like road signs or navigational signals, telling readers what relationships exist between ideas while also serving to indicate what differences merit the move from one section of an argument to the next.

Paragraphs, on the other hand, are a bit more complex. In a general sense, a paragraph is a group of related sentences connected by a shared focus. However, that’s not a very useful definition. Instead, it’s helpful to think of a paragraph as a bite of information. If you ‘feed’ your reader to small of a bite, it’s not very interesting; if you offer too big of a bite, it’s going to be hard for your reader to process it all. Instead, a paragraph should be broken in two whenever it is getting too big to understand. The easiest place to break a paragraph is when it essential to understand the first section—and to reflect on it—before reading the second section.

Application:  Students should be certain that they write a document that is easy to navigate, posting ‘signs’ along the way to help a reader. If it is difficult to explain the relationship between two ideas, the student writer should consider the possibility that one or both of the ideas needs to be moved to another part of the essay, closer to the sections it does relate to.

Likewise, paragraphs need to be seen from the perspective of the reader, not the author. Look at a paragraph and imagine it is in an assigned reading such as a textbook. Is it massive and daunting? Would you think about skimming it? Is it so small and vague that you wonder why it is left to stand on its own? Paragraphs do not have a magic length—complex arguments might have longer paragraphs than simple narratives, for example—but by remembering that each paragraph needs to be used by somebody else, student writers can get closer to managing the length and form of their essays.

What to Avoid:  Do not assume that simply because you intuit a relationship between ideas that your readers will agree. Don’t forget that someone needs to read the document after you’ve written it—turning in the essay is only the midpoint of the process.

REVISION and EDITING

Think about a professional athlete, musician, or actor. Imagine if, after each performance, that person could take back the worst quarter of his or her actions and try them over again. The ball is never dropped, the note is never misplayed, and the line is never forgotten. The ability to revisit a performance is a rare opportunity, and yet most amateur writers fail to take advantage of the chance. There are two ways to improve a writing performance after the fact: revision and editing.

Overview:  Spending long periods of time thinking about a subject and trying to explain that subject in a clear, concise, and objective manner is not a skill most people practice. Opinions tend to be reached gradually, over time, and are then offered for discussion. Dialogue occurs. Then, all parties move on. College essays don’t work this way. As a result, writing an essay is a very strange experience. It shouldn’t be a surprise, then, that many of us aren’t very good at it. The first time a student writes an essay for a college course might be the first time that student seriously thinks about the causes of World War I, the role of convergent evolution in biology, or the ethics of anti-smoking policies. Therefore, the initial draft of such an essay is likely to be shaky. Thoughts are probably incomplete. Evidence might be poorly explained.

After this first attempt at writing the essay, then, students should try to look at the essay again and try to see what needs to be changed. This process takes time. It means that the essay cannot be put off until right before the due date. It means that the student needs to spend even more time on a single assignment. However, it also means that one aspect of the student’s course performance is completely under his or her own control—because the student can keep working on the essay until it makes sense. This process, revision, is different than editing.

Editing is a more familiar process to many students. Editing consists of going through a written document and fixing mistakes. Proofreading an essay can help a student spot misspelled words, and looking over a document can allow for corrections of minor factual errors. Editing can be done after a desperate attempt to finish an essay just before a deadline, and frequent editing can help a student create writing that communicates clearly.

Application:  When a draft is complete, the student who wrote the essay needs to take some time away from the essay (anywhere from thirty minutes to a couple of days, depending on the schedule). Then, the student needs to return to the draft and look at it honesty and critically. This is when having a friend or family member look at the draft can be a good idea, but only if this other person is going to be critical—blind support and encouragement isn’t all that useful. Once the student has looked at the draft and taken some notes on what need to get better, it’s time to go back to writing.

Editing and proofreading should not happen once. Students who proofread need to be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. Struggle with punctuation? Then go over that part twice. Have trouble with spelling? Then stop relying on spell-checking software and go through the document slowly. The essay is a part of your course performance that is under your control. Take advantage of this opportunity.

What to Avoid:  Don’t confuse revision and editing. It is possible to revise a document and still to fail in editing it. Likewise, just because a document has been proofread does not mean that it has been revised.

Writing Academic Arguments Copyright © by Joshua P. Sunderbruch. All Rights Reserved.

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• Published: 31 January 2020

Practical considerations for establishing writing groups in interdisciplinary programs

• Nicole Bergen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8161-2599 1 ,
• Alzahra Hudani 1 ,
• Selim Khan 1 ,
• Natalie D. Montgomery 1 &
• Tracey O’Sullivan 1  

Palgrave Communications volume  6 , Article number:  19 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Health humanities

Academic writing capabilities are a cornerstone of success in doctoral programs, yet prove to be a point of anxiety and apprehension for many students. Providing support for academic writing within interdisciplinary programs poses special considerations, as students in these programs are called upon to transcend single disciplinary perspectives to address a central area of research, and to integrate multiple different disciplinary perspectives that may be conflicting or overlapping. When treated as a social practice, writing can serve as a common interest that draws doctoral students to convene and develop in their learning. This article describes the development of a student writing group in an interdisciplinary doctoral program, considering how the characteristics and activities of the group create an environment that enables and encourages enhanced interdisciplinary learning. The article argues that, when delivered successfully, student writing groups have the potential to strengthen student writing skills and outputs, as well as deepen interdisciplinary learning. Drawing from Lattuca’s four aspects of interdisciplinary learning (relational, mediated, transformative and situated), the article illustrates ways that the writing group helped to promote each aspect of learning and benefit the overall student experience in the program. Reflecting on these experiences, the authors propose six practical considerations for establishing writing groups in interdisciplinary programs: vision and purpose; dedicated time and space; institutional support; readings or educational material; socialization opportunities; and shared responsibility. Administrators, students, faculty members and support staff involved in the delivery of interdisciplinary doctoral programs are called upon to consider the introduction and/or strengthening of writing groups for the purpose of enhanced interdisciplinary learning.

Introduction

Whether loved or loathed, writing is an inevitable aspect of pursuing a doctoral degree. For many doctoral students, in addition to planning, drafting, revising, and finalizing a Ph.D thesis, writing is central throughout the research process (Aitchison and Lee, 2006 ). And on top of this, writing is typically a major component of coursework—where student performance impacts their competitiveness for awards and funding—and is required to build a record of academic publications, conference submissions and funding applications that are crucial for career progression beyond the doctoral program. Challenges such as writing anxiety, writing apprehension and writers’ block pose serious concerns when they jeopardize the academic and personal wellbeing of students (Wynne et al., 2014 ). Finding ways to encourage writing capabilities in doctoral students stands to promote their academic success and, by extension, bolster the reputation and visibility of their institution and program of study (Kamler and Thomson, 2006 ).

Yet, can fostering improved writing have additional benefits for academic acculturation and learning among doctoral students?

Literature about writing as a “social practice” indicates that it may (Kamler and Thomson, 2006 , 2008 ; Lillis and Turner, 2001 ). The notion of writing as a social practice suggests that academic writing is not a wholly solitary task, but rather one that is often undertaken in collaboration, or at least consultation, with others. It also acknowledges that the process of academic writing is embedded in institutional conventions and contexts. As such, social relations and knowledge of disciplinary practices and politics are intrinsic to how students learn to write (Baynham, 2002 ). For many students, writing at a doctoral level represents an entry into existing discourses within a given discipline or subject area; hence, writing is a fundamental way for doctoral students to develop their sense of professional academic identity (Cuthbert et al., 2009 ).

The question of how to effectively support writing as a social practice is particularly perplexing within interdisciplinary doctoral programs, given the often conflicting, overlapping or blurred disciplinary perspectives that address a shared area of research. Whereas single- or multi-disciplinary spaces accommodate one or multiple distinct disciplinary commitments, interdisciplinary spaces foster deeper interaction and integration of different disciplinary perspectives (Sá, 2008 ). In exploring definitions of interdisciplinarity, Borrego and Newswander ( 2010 ) distinguish between “team-based collaboration” (a common application in engineering and science fields, where disciplinary experts converge to work together), and what they view to be a “deep” definition of the term stemming from the humanities, which focuses on individual intellectual processes that synthesize concepts from multiple disciplines. Given that interdisciplinary doctoral programs generally focus on educating individuals in interdisciplinary methods, we adopt this latter conceptualization of the term. In keeping with this application, Lattuca ( 2002 ) proposes four aspects of interdisciplinary learning, which are catalyzed by student socialization processes: relational, mediated, transformative, and situated (Table 1 ) (Lattuca, 2002 ; Manathunga et al., 2006 ).

The nature of interdisciplinary programs presents two major considerations for furthering the social practice of writing among doctoral students. First, achieving an interdisciplinary learning environment is inherently challenging given that institutions (and their faculty members) tend to be organized according to single disciplines (Holley, 2009 ). High-quality interdisciplinary programs commit intention and resources to encourage collaboration across disciplines, promoting learning communities that are diverse and participatory (Newswander and Borrego, 2009 ).

Second, the acculturation of doctoral students to interdisciplinary norms, values and beliefs—which also inform writing practices—requires deliberate efforts to foster student socialization (Boden et al., 2011 ; Holley, 2009 ). This acculturation process is particularly resonant in interdisciplinary programs. While exposure to interdisciplinarity as a theoretical perspective may be a focus of core coursework, students may be expected to pursue their own interdisciplinary research interests within the program.

In this article we (doctoral students and faculty in the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences at the University of Ottawa) present our firsthand experiences of establishing and participating in a writing group initiative, which in its mission of strengthening the writing capabilities of its membership, has also enhanced the interdisciplinary learning environment in our doctoral program. This article aims to: explain how our writing group serves as a means for interdisciplinary learning; present general considerations for strengthening the potential of writing groups for this purpose; and advocate for the wider integration of writing groups within interdisciplinary doctoral programs. In this article, we first briefly define writing groups and their application in academic and interdisciplinary settings. Then, we detail our experiences establishing a writing group in the interdisciplinary Population Health Ph.D Program and consider ways that our writing group promotes the enhancement of interdisciplinary learning, referring to Lattuca’s ( 2002 ) four aspects of interdisciplinary learning Footnote 1 . Finally, drawing from our experiences, we propose practical considerations to establish writing groups in interdisciplinary doctoral programs, and conclude by outlining wider lessons that can be drawn for the establishment of writing groups in interdisciplinary graduate programs, including the rationale for providing strong institutional support.

Writing groups

Writing groups, broadly defined, consist of two or more participants who congregate with the common purpose of doing, discussing or sharing writing projects (Aitchison and Guerin, 2014 ). Writing groups that encourage social connections throughout the process of writing are increasingly recognized as a means to develop critical writing competencies through peer-learning in higher education (Aitchison, 2009 ; Larcombe et al., 2007 ; Lee and Boud, 2003 ; Maher et al., 2008 ). Social in nature, such groups provide context to inform the practice of writing and student mentoring by faculty and peers. When successful, the benefits of participating in writing groups are numerous: writing groups can serve as supportive communities, encourage daily writing practices, improve language and writing skills, facilitate new insights, and bolster the confidence and writing self-efficacy of participants (Aitchison, 2009 ; Cuthbert and Spark, 2008 ; Guerin et al., 2013 ; Larcombe et al., 2007 ; Maher et al., 2008 ).

Writing groups constitute a promising strategy to facilitate meaningful student engagement and socialization surrounding the social practice of writing in interdisciplinary programs. Previous studies of multi-disciplinary writing groups have found them to be a beneficial forum, for example, encouraging graduate students to develop a sense of professional identity by serving as proponents for their respective disciplines, (Cuthbert et al., 2009 ) and pushing students to practice communicating ideas to academically-diverse audiences (Guerin et al., 2013 ). To date, however, there is a paucity of literature that specifically addresses writing groups in interdisciplinary doctoral programs and how they may support student learning.

Case study: the Population Health Writing Group

The following case study describes the development of a student writing group within the interdisciplinary Population Health Ph.D Program at the University of Ottawa Footnote 2 . The creation of our Writing Group was student initiated, inspired by students’ prior exposure to writing groups in other faculties and through institution-wide writing support programs Footnote 3 . We note below how all coauthors have been involved as participants and/or facilitators in the Writing Group and why this initiative received strong institutional support.

The first iteration of the Writing Group was launched in April 2018, with the following arrangements: (1) a faculty member in the Program (Tracey O’Sullivan (TO)) was invited to co-facilitate the group alongside a student facilitator (Nicole Bergen (NB)); (2) a dedicated space at the institution was secured to hold meetings; and (3) financial sponsorship was obtained from the Population Health Ph.D Program for refreshments Footnote 4 . The original goal of the group was to support one another in developing a daily writing practice and independently preparing articles to submit for publication in a peer-reviewed journal. To recruit participants an email invitation was sent to all students enrolled in the program. The group met 12 times over the summer semester (initially weekly, and then biweekly), and followed the approach outlined in the book Writing your journal article in twelve weeks: A guide to academic publishing success by Wendy Laura Belcher (Belcher, 2009 ). At the first meeting, we established an online space to set goals, report progress on goals, and share writing-related resources. Co-authors Alzahra Hudani (AH) and Selim Khan (SK) were among the regular attendees.

Meetings during this first summer session lasted 1 h, and consisted of a discussion about writing progress since the last meeting, strategies for overcoming obstacles, and goal setting for the coming weeks. Discussions were loosely framed around weekly readings from Belcher ( 2009 ), though we also addressed emergent topics related to writing and publishing. While most participants convened in person, students occasionally joined the meetings remotely using online video conferencing software. By the end of the 12-week session, at least five of the student participants submitted one or more papers for publication. The final meeting of the summer session was a mini writing retreat, consisting of a half-day of writing at a café in the morning followed by a hike in the afternoon.

A second iteration of the Writing Group (fall session) spanned September to December 2018. The invitation to participate was an open invitation to all students that welcomed attendance on a drop-in basis. Given the strong momentum from the summer session, the fall session launched with similar goals, though a more relaxed structure: the 1 h, weekly meetings provided an opportunity for students to discuss any writing endeavor (not necessarily a dedicated project to move forward throughout the semester), and optional weekly readings from Paul Silvia’s book Write it up: practical strategies for writing and publishing journal articles . (Silvia, 2015 ) We introduced an afternoon writing component, whereby students could remain in the space after the meeting to work on their independent writing projects. Compared to the summer session, the fall session had less emphasis on goal setting and accountability, though more opportunity for broader discussions about writing and the research process. The fall session took place across two locations at the institution, with ongoing facilitation support from TO, the program director and one of the coauthors, and financial support from the Population Health Ph.D Program. All other coauthors (NB, AH, SK and Natalie Montgomery (NM)) were among the 15 students who attended during the fall session, with NB and NM sharing co-facilitator duties. Teaching, academic and work obligations were a barrier for some students intending to attend more regularly. Similar to summer, the fall session culminated with a mini writing retreat and social activity.

In the following winter session (January to April, 2019), facilitator duties were distributed amongst the group with a rotating student volunteer leading the weekly discussion featuring an article of their choice. Sharing the responsibility amongst the group lessened the burden and fostered a sense of buy-in for all Population Health Writing Group members. This was important to support each other each week and benefit from a variety of different interdisciplinary perspectives. Faculty members were periodically invited to meetings to talk about their personal experiences and share advice related to writing topics. This strategy was employed to foster participation of other professors and expand opportunities for students to strengthen their professional networks.

Enhanced interdisciplinary learning

The coauthors reflected upon how features of the Population Health Writing Group address relational, mediated, transformative and situated aspects of interdisciplinary learning, detailed below. Overall, our observations and personal experiences in the Writing Group suggest that the student engagement, interaction and dialogs enabled by the Writing Group have been instrumental for enhanced overall student experiences in the program of study. From an institutional perspective, having a weekly gathering to support writing created a new channel for mentoring and provided an opportunity for the program director to interact with students on a weekly basis. This was important because at that time the program spanned five faculties; the writing group was an opportunity to foster cohesion and support many students who were finished their coursework and did not have regularly scheduled meetings on campus to connect with peers and faculty.

Relational aspects

This component refers to the notion that learning is facilitated by others in the work or study environment who influence and promote interdisciplinarity in critical ways (Lattuca, 2002 ). For example, it encompasses the spaces and opportunities for interdisciplinary dialog. The Population Health Writing Group established a physical space and time for students to convene, and introduced a new opportunity for interdisciplinary dialog. We successfully secured a “neutral” meeting space that was not linked to any particular disciplinary department. We feel that this contributed to promoting a sense of inclusion for doctoral students with affiliations across different faculties, as the Group was attended by students with diverse research interests and backgrounds. Likewise, the participation of the Program Director (TO) as a co-facilitator underscored the interdisciplinary nature of the environment, as she is someone known to students for her leadership in promoting interdisciplinary learning environments. Other small touches, such as providing refreshments, ritualized aspects of the encounter and made the space inviting and comfortable.

Having a dedicated physical space is a beneficial, though often overlooked, aspect of interdisciplinary encounters. One particular challenge stems from the dilemma of requiring a common interdisciplinary space in order to effectively congregate to then rally for sufficient support for a common interdisciplinary space (Boden et al., 2011 ). The Population Health Writing Group serves as, at minimum, one such space to foster a sense of belonging to the program and build momentum for further interdisciplinary dialog opportunities.

Mediated aspects

Mediated learning is the participation in multiple disciplinary communities of practice, to variable extents, depending on the learner’s interests and purposes (Lattuca, 2002 ). Learners may seek interaction with others with different disciplinary backgrounds, and engagement with texts and tools from various disciplines.

The Writing Group’s weekly readings and discussion topics, which spanned a variety of both general and discipline-specific issues, facilitated mediated aspects of interdisciplinary learning. These mediated exchanges provided structure to the Group meetings, and facilitated meaningful interactions. The depth of student interactions evolved organically through prolonged engagement with fellow Writing Group participants and their work. In many instances, Writing Group participants exchanged their written work in an ad hoc peer-review process. Giving and receiving feedback from peers in the context of writing groups has been found to be an important tool for learning; in particular, students benefit from the exercise of communicating and explaining their feedback to their peers (Aitchison, 2009 ).

The ongoing involvement of the Population Health Program Director as a co-facilitator has helped to ensure mediated exchanges surrounding writing by broadening discussions to encompass interdisciplinary perspectives. Additionally, the time dedicated to the Writing Group by the Program Director conveys institutional academic support for students. Student experience and professional skill development are both institutional priorities within this program, and therefore the provision of faculty support for this initiative was an obvious choice for the faculty administering the program. Perceived organizational support through interpersonal connections with supervisors/employers is associated with need satisfaction as well as work satisfaction, happiness and self-realization (Gillet et al., 2012 ).

Transformative aspects

Transformative learning occurs as mediated tools are put to new uses; often, tools are purposefully adapted for these new uses (Lattuca, 2002 ). Transformative learning integrates knowledge yielding original, creative outputs. Evidence of transformative learning in our Writing Group was apparent, though often indirectly. Students who regularly attended the weekly meetings were exposed to various research methods and viewpoints from peers, and could practice engaging in dialog surrounding diverse topics. Having the opportunity to use the Writing Group as a sounding board for projects, participants were positioned to receive and integrate peer feedback to enhance their writing outputs. This process has the potential to enrich their work, as students in interdisciplinary doctoral programs demonstrate a wide variety of experiences and backgrounds, academically and otherwise.

Although difficult to observe, transformative learning is also encouraged through the student socialization aspect of the writing groups. Kamler and Thomson ( 2006 ) demonstrate the interdependence of multiple layers of discourse in the production of scholarly writing: the written text; the production and interpretation of text; and the abstract sociocultural practices in which discourse is embedded. Acknowledging that doctoral students tend to have low awareness of the sociocultural practices surrounding writing, the authors suggest that gaining an appreciation for this context is important to fully understand their contribution to knowledge in the field (Kamler and Thomson, 2006 ).

Situated aspects

The situated aspect refers to the wider context that affects how interdisciplinary learning advances, encompassing the specific personal, interpersonal and communal contexts that enable interdisciplinary exchanges (Lattuca, 2002 ). The Population Health Writing Group cultivated a deliberate context for interdisciplinary exchanges, promoting situated aspects of learning. This context reflects the goals and purpose of the group (i.e., for interdisciplinary doctoral students to support one another in daily writing practices and writing for publication), as well as emergent contextual practices within the group (e.g., setting goals, sharing resources and peer-reviewing). The Writing Group has remained a dedicated space for students in the Population Health Ph.D Program, despite requests from students in other programs to join. The choice for the Writing Group to remain as a Population Health Ph.D Program initiative has allowed it to remain an environment for interdisciplinary exchanges: all participants have a vested interest in the interdisciplinary nature of the discussions. This has also ensured ongoing support from the faculty. The Population Health Writing Group enabled us, as interdisciplinary doctoral students and faculty, to be less centralized in our various departments, and helped us to break from working on projects in seclusion with limited to no program interactivity and engagement across faculties. In turn, this opportunity brought meaning, inclusivity and rigor to our studies beyond first-year coursework, and allowed our Group to focus on developing routine support for each other alongside a strong work ethic with our manuscripts.

Decisions surrounding the structure and implementation of the Writing Group were informed through ongoing consultation with students in the program, though remained within the overall vision for the group. While the degree of structure in the Writing Group varied from the more structured summer session to the more relaxed fall and winter sessions, no one particular style is needed for writing groups to be successful, provided that the members are committed and invested in one another (Lee and Boud, 2003 ).

Practical considerations

The experience of establishing a writing group in the interdisciplinary Population Health Ph.D Program has led us to consider how such groups could be oriented towards enhanced interdisciplinary learning. The coauthors undertook a critical reflection of the group over the first three sessions, and propose six practical considerations for developing writing groups in interdisciplinary doctoral programs.

Vision and purpose

Having a purpose directed towards creating opportunities for interdisciplinary encounters is helpful to maintain an interdisciplinary focus. It also serves to articulate the aims of the group to the student body and faculty members. For example, a greater emphasis on flexibility and inclusion in the fall iteration of our writing group prompted us to adopt strategies to encourage drop-in attendance and reach a larger number of students. While developing writing capabilities has remained the primary focus of the group (indicated, above all, in its name) acknowledging the group as an opportunity to promote aspects of interdisciplinary learning may help to strengthen such outcomes.

Dedicated time and space

Securing a neutral space (i.e., one that is not associated with a particular discipline) for interdisciplinary writing groups promotes an inclusive environment. It helps to establish consistency and positions the group as an ongoing fixture of the program (thereby promoting its sustainability). In the case of our group, maintaining the space for individual writing following the weekly meeting provided additional opportunities for engagement and encouraged on site writing. Accommodating students through the option of participating in meetings virtually was another way to ensure that students engaged in diverse research activities (e.g., field work or conferences) could participate.

Institutional support

Support from the institution, faculty and program—through financing, participation, training or otherwise—substantiates the experience and thereby promotes the sustainability of the group. It can also support Strategic Enrollment Management by creating additional opportunities to mentor students throughout their academic trajectories. Students can benefit from the expertise of faculty members, while regular contact with students helps faculty members remain engaged and invested in their success. Feedback from the coauthors (and informally from other participants in the group) suggests that the engagement of faculty members has enhanced their experience in the group and motivated them to attend. The presence and support of faculty members allowed this initiative to feel officially sanctioned and structured by offering a sense of mutual commitment and accountability between the program and students, and helped maintain ongoing participation and contributions. Not only did faculty members attend the group on a weekly basis, but select faculty members were invited to give guest lectures where they touched upon writing in different contexts, lending their personal experiences.

Readings or educational material

Identifying texts that have an interdisciplinary focus or that are applicable across multiple disciplines provides a road map for broad discussions to the benefit of a variety of students across different faculties. The practical nature of a writing group—i.e., to develop written outputs—often lends itself to types of educational materials that complement what students may encounter in their coursework or program of study. Selecting materials that have applications across disciplines helps to orient discussions thusly. In our experiences, non-mandatory readings provided a useful common starting point for facilitated discussions while maintaining an inclusive environment for all students to attend (regardless of whether they had completed the reading).

Social aspect

Creating opportunities for student socialization builds connections and social capital between students with different disciplinary backgrounds. Socialization may be encouraged through structured writing group activities, or it may occur organically among regular participants. Building momentum for supplementary activities, such as writing retreats, group writing sessions, guest lectures, gallery visits, hiking trips and shared meals, may enhance the social environment.

Shared responsibility

Cultivating a sense of shared responsibility encourages participation, buy-in and ownership, and promotes the representation of a variety of perspectives—a notion that is particularly resonant in interdisciplinary graduate programs. Shared responsibility may be enacted through rotating leadership roles.

While the general benefits of participating in writing groups have been well documented, few studies to date have explored how the benefits of writing groups can be harnessed to strengthen learning opportunities within interdisciplinary graduate programs. Drawing on Lattuca’s ( 2002 ) four aspects of interdisciplinary learning provided a suitable framework to guide our reflections on the impact of our Writing Group. We acknowledge that other components of interdisciplinary learning may also be pertinent and relevant. For instance, the iterative aspect of interdisciplinary learning that occurs through repeated encounters and negotiation emerged over the course of prolonged, regular engagement through the Writing Group.

On a practical note, our experiences establishing a writing group in the interdisciplinary Population Health Ph.D Program illustrated that student, faculty and administrative support were all key to the initial launch of this initiative. Reflecting upon the first three sessions of the writing group, we do not point towards a single formula for success, but rather towards the importance of ongoing engagement and refinement of the delivery—including the structure, reading materials and meeting format—to ensure that the initiative remains relevant to the needs and preferences of the student cohort. In particular, we emphasize that writing groups can be an opportunity to strengthen aspects of interdisciplinary learning, and call for deliberate and ongoing consideration of measures to promote these benefits. The practical considerations highlighted above have helped to identify characteristics of our group that enhance aspects of interdisciplinary learning and that may serve as guidance for establishing writing groups in other interdisciplinary graduate programs.

Given the centrality of writing to the doctoral education experience, both students and faculty stand to benefit from strategies to support the social process of writing. By contributing to enriched student experiences, academic capabilities, and productivity, writing groups constitute a unique opportunity for the marketability of interdisciplinary programs. Acknowledging the growing interest in interdisciplinary graduate programs, we contend that writing groups may have positive implications for the success and future prospects of the program graduates, and in time, student recruitment into the program. Research is warranted to expand upon our experiences, explore diverse aspects of interdisciplinary learning, and compare different models and approaches to delivering writing groups across other interdisciplinary graduate programs.

We adopted Lattuca’s four aspects of interdisciplinary learning to help us guide our reflections and structure our experiences about the Writing Group initiative post hoc.

The program spans five faculties: Health Sciences, Medicine, Law (Common Law Section), Social Sciences and the Telfer School of Management. The core competencies of the program emphasize interdisciplinarity, including “acknowledging the disciplinary limits and the input of different disciplines in terms of knowledge, research methods and interventions” (University of Ottawa, 2016 ). As of early 2019, there were 47 students enrolled in the program.

The structure and objectives of the Writing Group were also informed through consultations with students from the program who were enrolled in a professional skill development course; this course included a focus on developing academic writing competencies.

Students took turns providing refreshments to promote a sense of inclusivity and shared responsibility among the participants.

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Bergen, N., Hudani, A., Khan, S. et al. Practical considerations for establishing writing groups in interdisciplinary programs. Palgrave Commun 6 , 19 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0395-6

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Academic Writing

English, education, other.

46 questions

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• 1. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt What is 'academic writing'? A technique to write balanced, accurate and professional assignments An old-fashioned way of writing How university professors write The writing you find in textbooks
• 2. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt As long as you know your tutor, you don't need to use a formal style of writing. It's good to be friendly! Some tutors like you to be formal but some don't mind as long as you do the work. You only need to be formal in exams, not regular coursework. It's good to be friendly but always use formal English when you write assignments. Formal English is too old-fashioned these days
• 3. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Choose three words to describe academic writing: Talented, stylish, inspiring Precise, clear, objective Decisive, divisive, derisive Subjective, obscure, vague
• 4. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Contractions are: what happens when you have a baby when someone says the opposite to you when something is too narrow a shortened form of a word
• 5. Multiple Choice Edit 1 minute 1 pt Which example is correct? However, the main reasons are time, money and cost. However the main reasons, are time, money, and, cost. However, the main reasons are time money and cost. However, the main reasons, are time money, and cost.
• 6. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Which is correct? They were effected badly by the incident The incident effected them badly. They were affected badly by the incident. The affects of the incident were bad.
• 7. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Choose the right one: It's bowl's empty. Its bowl's empty. Its' bowls' empty. It's bowls empty.
• 8. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt 'Information on the internet is 'free'. Anyone can use it without having to reference it.' True False It depends on how important the assignment is. You only need to reference authors' work on the internet
• 9. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Scanning is: making detailed notes reading for an overview lying on the couch and watching tv, with a book nearby  reading for specific information

Academic literacy(ies)...

are often viewed pluralistically

have a meaning dependent on contexts of literacy

are sometimes defined as literacy needed to succeed in school

all of these

Academic language...

is a set of vocabulary terms used in schools

comes as second nature to native speakers, but is difficult for ELLs to acquire

is the linguistic register that students are expected to use in school subjects

• 12. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What is a claim?  a statement used to support or prove the thesis quotations from a source the analysis explaining the meaning of evidence  a sentence that grabs your reader's attention 
• 13. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What is a evidence?  a statement used to support or prove the thesis quotations from a source the analysis explaining the meaning of evidence  a sentence that grabs your reader's attention 
• 14. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt What is analysis?  a statement used to support or prove the thesis quotations from a source the explanation of the meaning of evidence  a sentence that grabs your reader's attention 
• 15. Multiple Choice Edit 5 seconds 1 pt What is true of the introductory paragraph?  ends with the thesis introduces the big idea of the essay starts with a hook all of these
• 16. Multiple Choice Edit 5 seconds 1 pt A thesis statement is NOT...  the main point of the essay the main argument of the essay a summary opinion + reasons
• 17. Multiple Choice Edit 5 seconds 1 pt What order do essays go in?  Introduction, Body Paragraph, Body Paragraph, Conclusion Body Paragraph, Introduction, Conclusion, Body Paragraph  Introduction, Body Paragraph, Conclusion, Body Paragraph Conclusion, Introduction, Body Paragraph, Body Paragraph
• 18. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What order to the sentences in a body paragraphs go in? Evidence, Explanation, Topic Sentence Thesis, Evidence, Explanation Topic Sentence, Evidence, Explanation Explanation, Topic Sentence, Evidence
• 19. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt When do you use formal language?  In an academic essay. When you talk to a friend. When you write a text message.
• 20. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Credible or not credible?  Websites that end with .org, .edu, or .gov  Credible Not Credible
• 21. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt What is the difference of writing essays in high school and at University? Writing additional 5 paragraphs Writing using elevated languages Writing academically Writing in English
• 22. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt What does it mean to write academically? To write in order to pass final exams To write paper for scholars To write using proper English language To avoid copy pasting from the Internet
• 23. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Who are the scholars? Lecturers only Lecturers and Lawyers only Academic writers only Professors, Lecturers, Law students
• 24. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Why is important to choose a relevant topic? So that the topic will gain the interest of the academic community To pass Research, Writing and Drafting module To write something useful for the lecturer So that students can express what they feel
• 25. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt What would the academic community look into? Proper grammar written in the essay A whole bunch of statistics and data Students' feeling and opinion Informed arguments written in the research paper

The following are processes involved in academic writing EXCEPT:

Posing a question

Problematizing a concept

Evaluating an opinion

Challenging the readers

Which of the following results may arise when one successfully underwent the process of academic writing?

The questions posed by the writer will be answered.

The problem raised by the writer will be clarified.

The writer can argue for an opinion or stand.

All of the above

Who are the target readers of an academic essay?

Parents, workers, teachers

Teachers, students, academic community

Students, out-of-school youth, government officials

None of the above

What are the purposes of doing an academic writing?

To settle, to negotiate and to inform

To defend, to challenge and to question

To inform, to persuade and to argue a specific point

To guess, to hypothesize and to make conclusions

Writing academic papers requires deliberate, thorough and careful thought. Therefore, what should one do to achieve a well-crafted academic essay?

One must depend on his/her own opinions alone.

One must conduct a research on the topic at hand.

One must not consult the Internet for unsure sources.

One must depend highly on the Internet for easy information access.

The term, "VERY OFTEN" may be improved using a more appropriate academic word which is:

An academic essay must use appropriate vocabulary words but not too pretentious, highfalutin words. Which among these words is the simplified version of the term, "supercalifragilisticexpialidocious"?

beautiful; pretty

exquisite; one-of-a-kind

extraordinarily good; wonderful

hardworking; industrious

"VERY AFRAID" also means

"VERY LAZY" also means

topsy-turvy

"VERY BORING" also means

• 36. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What is a problem-solution paragraphs?   Paragraphs about personal opinion Paragraphs about a problem and some solutions to it a)  paragraphs about causes and effects
• 37. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt What is the first thing to write in the problem paragraph?  The first problem Examples and reasons Topic sentence
• 38. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What is the function of the first paragraph for the problem-solution?  To give reasons and examples To give different ideas and examples To present the problem, effects and causes. 
• 39. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt In the second paragraph, what kind of information should be given to the reader?  Solutions for the problem  More problems More examples and reasons
• 40. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt In order to solve this problem,... Which paragraph starts like this?  Problem paragraph Solution paragraph Conclusion paragraph
• 41. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What is an essay? Paragraphs written about a single topic and a central main idea. A combination of ideas in many paragraphs  ideas develop into many paragraphs  
• 42. Multiple Choice Edit 1 minute 1 pt What are the three main parts of an essay? The hook, the main idea and the conclusion. The introduction, the body and the conclusion. The topic sentence, the body and the conclusion.
• 43. Multiple Choice Edit 1 minute 1 pt What is the purpose of the topic sentence? To give coherence to the paragraph. To help with the flow of sentences. To help the reader understand what the paragraph will be about.
• 44. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What is a thesis statement? Is the sentence that tells the main idea of the whole essay. It  the paragraph that presents the problems. Is the sentence that calls for action.
• 45. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt Finish the sentence:  “A thesis should not……” only give facts about a topic. state your opinion spark interest to your audience
• 46. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt Finish the sentence: “ A strong thesis statement should……. give facts. keep the reader guessing. clearly state the writer's opinion.

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Deliberate Practice Part 2: Three skills for academic writing

In this  series ,  Bryce Gessell  challenges academic writers to get serious about improving their writing skills. Do we write like we’re playing pickup basketball or like we’re playing on a competitive team? How can targeted, deliberate practice improve our writing processes and our finished products? In this second installment, Bryce identifies three crucial skills of academic writing: disciplinary mastery, clarity, and writing habits. He reflects on how we learn and practice these various skills in our academic training. You can download a PDF of this article here:

Part 2: Academic writing—disciplinary mastery + clarity

If you want to figure out whether someone is a clear writer, here’s a test: give their work to undergrads to read. They’ll figure it out for you.

I saw this test in action just this semester. In spring 2021 I taught a course on early modern philosophy and science. We started by reading Aristotle and Ptolemy on astronomy, then moved through Copernicus and Kepler to Descartes and Newton. We focused on concepts of motion and space, the interaction between physics and metaphysics, and the development of scientific laws.

Later in the course we read from two other figures: Émilie du Châtelet and Immanuel Kant . Du Châtelet (1706-1749), a French natural philosopher, wrote on many topics in physics and the philosophy of science. So did Kant (1724-1804), a German thinker. In fact, they both have important things to say about space and Newton’s laws of motion. They dealt with many of the same problems, separated by about fifty years in time. They have a lot in common.

One thing they do not have in common, however, is the quality of their writing. Du Châtelet’s is clear as crystal. Even in English translation it’s concise, lucid, and engaging. Kant’s writing is…not those things. It’s atrocious. It’s a bit easier in the original German, but even there it’s really tough. The only way to read and understand Kant is to already know what he means, but that would require reading and understanding him. You can see the problem.

I’ve long known about this contrast between du Châtelet and Kant, but my undergrads reminded me again a couple months ago. We read du Châtelet and everyone loved her. They appreciated the clear explanations of problems and forthright statements of her own views. She was one of our favorite authors in the course. It wasn’t the first time my students have shown a preference for her, either. I’ve taught her work at three different universities, and every time someone in class has remarked about the clarity of her writing.

After du Châtelet we read Kant. We struggled through a shorter section of the Critique of Pure Reason , called the “Transcendental Aesthetic.” The section is important and interesting but unless you already know that Kant is rejecting previous concepts of space in favor of his own position then you probably won’t get it from the text. Then we read one chapter from his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science , and that was ever harder. One student summed it up by saying that reading Kant is like hacking through a rain forest with a dull machete. You have to give that amount of effort to make it through.

Reading these two authors this semester got me thinking about academic writing in general. I was most interested in how both du Châtelet and Kant could write about similar problems but do so in such different ways. They were both dealing with sublime philosophical and scientific issues, but one made my undergrads rejoice and the other made them weep.

The components of academic writing

I’m going to suggest a way of thinking about the different parts of academic writing. My division will help us understand the contrast between du Châtelet and Kant. More than that, though, the division will help us think about our own writing and where we can improve. I’ll weave in some discussion of graduate school and practices of professional academics. Then, in the next post, I’ll combine what I say here with what I said in the first one about deliberate practice.

I suggest that we can think of academic writing as consisting of three parts: disciplinary mastery, clarity, and writing habits. Disciplinary mastery involves knowing a field, managing sources, creating interesting arguments, and contributing to ongoing debates. Clarity involves the quality of the writing itself. Writing habits involve, among other things, how often you write, how much, and what you feel when you write, such as anxiety or calm.

Now let me be clear about the suggestion I’m making. I’m not offering a scientific analysis of the elements of academic writing. I am not saying my division is the only way to think about writing, or even the best way. There are other ways and some of them might be better. I am saying, though, that this division has helped me to better understand my weaknesses and strengths as an academic writer. It’s helped me to see where I need to improve, and how I can do so. And it combines well with deliberate practice, which is the purpose of all these blog posts anyway.

As part of this division, we should see each individual component as its own skill. Disciplinary mastery is one skill, clarity is another, and writing habits are a third skill. I think of the skills as a character’s stats in a video game: the character has a disciplinary mastery stat, a clarity stat, and a habits stat. The stats represent how good they are at different tasks, and the stat values can go up and down.

It’s important to understand, though—and this is crucial for improving writing—that each stat or skill is independent of the other two . That you have supreme disciplinary mastery does not mean that you are a clear writer. Your ability to write concise sentences does not mean that you understand the problems in your field or that you could generate an interesting argument about them. And high stats in both those skills do not mean that you write every day, or even at all.

Dividing academic writing this way helps us explain the difference between du Châtelet and Kant. Both achieved a very high level of disciplinary mastery—they both knew a great deal about their fields and understood the problems in and out. But du Châtelet was also a fantastic writer, while Kant was not. Her clarity stat was really high, while Kant’s needed some buffs [1] .

You, right now, as an academic writer, have certain stat values for the three components of academic writing. These values are not fixed and will vary over time. If you are diligent and fortunate enough to stay in academia, your disciplinary mastery will likely see monotonic increase throughout your career. But the clarity of most academics plateaus early in their career and doesn’t rise much after that, and some academic writers get worse as their careers progress.

For chronic stagnation in clarity I blame the structures and the incentives of academic professions themselves. Below I’ll discuss the components of academic writing one at a time, along with how they relate to those structures and incentives.

Each skill is independent of the other two. That you have supreme disciplinary mastery does not mean that you are a clear writer. Your ability to write concise sentences does not mean that you understand the problems in your field or that you could generate an interesting argument about them. And high stats in both those skills do not mean that you write every day, or even at all. Bryce Gessell at writingisthinking.com

Disciplinary mastery

Disciplinary mastery is the skill of knowing a field and being able to make meaningful contributions to it. This skill involves understanding major problems, knowing prominent positions, and discerning connections between areas. It also involves the ability not only to see fruitful possibilities for research, but to follow up on those possibilities with interesting, original arguments.

We’ll use my own field as an example: neuroscience-related philosophy. Disciplinary mastery in this area requires that I know a decent amount about the brain and be familiar with methodological and conceptual problems within neuroscience itself. I also need to know things about the philosophy of neuroscience, such as different positions on what counts as an explanation. In the other direction, it’s important for me to see how to apply observations about the brain to traditional problems in philosophy of mind and psychology.

Disciplinary mastery also demands that I use my knowledge of the field to make original research contributions. After all, we’re talking about this mastery as a component of academic writing. In order to intervene in a philosophy of neuroscience debate, I have to know the debate and the positions well enough that I can say something new or different about them. If I can’t do that, then I might understand some philosophical issues, but I don’t have the right kind of mastery over them to write from an academic perspective.

When you write a paper, you use the skill of disciplinary mastery to synthesize other views and design an original argument. The mastery manifests in different ways, depending on the field. If you’re a scientist, you manifest your mastery in conceiving experiments, running them, and analyzing the data. Your writing then relies on that mastery. In many parts of the humanities, you use your skill while you are writing—part of your disciplinary mastery is the skill of creating the paper.

Since this mastery is a skill , it can grow over time. You start out by learning how to structure a paper. Then you learn how to revise one. Then you learn how to create an argument that might convince someone. Then you learn to integrate more varied sources to give your argument wider scope, and so on.

Strategies for successful publication also belong to disciplinary mastery. Here’s an example. Suppose you’ve written a reply responding to some other paper, but then you discover that the journal you hoped to submit to doesn’t accept replies. You don’t just throw the paper out, though—instead, you reframe your argument as dealing with a pattern or family of views in the field, of which the paper you are replying to is but one instance. The new frame transforms your reply from narrow to broad, and you’re now making an argument with much wider reach that more journals would be interested in. The ability to take a paper in a new direction like this is a part of disciplinary mastery.

Most fields have informal benchmarks you can use to track your progress in this skill. The first few papers I sent to journals came back with comments telling me that the work wasn’t very good. With help from mentors I started to turn the rejections into revise-and-resubmits. That’s progress. I knew I was gaining even more proficiency when I started getting R&Rs on papers that no one else had ever seen at all. That’s more progress—my disciplinary mastery has increased.

Enhancing disciplinary mastery is why people go to graduate school. Teaching students to master their discipline is the reason graduate school exists. You join a PhD program to learn to how to be a philosopher, a literary theorist, a historian, or any kind of scientist. When people talk about “training” graduate students, they are referring to disciplinary mastery.

Most people who both remain in a field and give research some priority will see their disciplinary mastery increase over time. It is hard for your skill to plateau or regress when you spend most days in a week thinking, reading, and conversing about problems in your area. Even teaching-focused jobs spur this growth. I teach four or five classes per semester but my teaching prep and my students have pushed my understanding of my fields. After my recent early modern philosophy and science class, I know the original sources better than ever before.

Academic professions reward disciplinary mastery over everything else. Getting a job almost always requires having publications; getting tenure may require a certain number of articles with certain impact factors. This is the most important skill in professional advancement.

The second component of academic writing is clarity. We might also just call this “good writing”—clarity is the ability to produce comprehensible, easy-to-read prose. It has many aspects, such as word choice, sentence construction, and paragraph design. Concerns about audience play a heavy role in this component.

There is overlap between disciplinary mastery and clarity. Creating a convincing argument, for example, often requires both skills. They bleed into and feed off each other. We don’t need a perfect separation, however, to think about them as different components of academic writing.

As we said before, while both du Châtelet and Kant had achieved disciplinary mastery, du Châtelet was much better at clarity. As a result, many readers find her much easier and more fun to read. We should not defend Kant on the basis that he was a “deeper thinker” and therefore an obscure writer. Modern Kant commentators achieve a level of disciplinary mastery equal to Kant’s, but can explain his ideas in clearer language. Kant may have been able to do so as well, but either didn’t have the skill or didn’t care to.

The component of clarity tends to travel well —it transfers from field to field, or from audience to audience. Someone who writes clear and engaging prose in one area will probably be able to do it in another area. Good writing is good writing, no matter the subject or audience.

The travel-ability of good writing is one reason to consider it a distinct component of academic writing. A profound paper can have terrible writing, while a superficial one can be lucid and fun. They are different skills. Having a high stat value in one skill does not guarantee that you have a high value in the other.

No one goes to graduate school to enhance the clarity of their writing for the sake of clarity alone. Almost all writing programs teach writers to produce work within a certain field or genre . For many people, therefore, clarity is an accompaniment or ancillary skill that rides along with disciplinary mastery. This is a very important fact about the skill of clarity, and helps explain why so few academics make major progress in the quality of their prose during their careers. We’ll return to this point in the next post.

Academia offers little reward for developing the skill of clarity. Within professional circles, the most you’ll get for being a clear writer is an occasional thank-you from journal reviewers or a compliment from a colleague. Other than the poor undergrads who may have to read your work, no one cares. In order for someone to mention how bad a writer you are, your stat value must be so low that the writing obscures the disciplinary mastery or does serious harm to the ideas. Few academic writers are that bad, though you’ll no doubt be able to come up with a few suspects right away.

Writing habits

The third component of academic writing is your writing habits. Sometimes people call these “writing practices.” Your writing habits include how often you write and how much writing you produce in a day or week. These habits also include your mindset when you write: are you calm or anxious? Forgiving or fearful? Optimistic or self-deprecating?

Your writing habits help determine how much output you produce in both the short and long term. Like disciplinary mastery and clarity, good writing habits are a skill developed over time. They are not some mysterious innate gift, only bestowed upon a chosen few. If you want to improve them, the first step is to start writing more. Stretch yourself to produce more writing than you did before; increase your word count or time spent per day, a little at a time.

Writing habits also travel well. The more you write in one area, the more you will feel like writing in another area.

Although a high stat value in writing habits is important for academic writing, this series of posts isn’t about how to create better habits or new writing practices. I may take up the topic in another series of posts, but I won’t have more to say about it here.

The components of fiction writing

I have suggested that we can divide academic writing into three components. The same division works for writing outside of academia as well—we just have to change what we mean by “disciplinary mastery.” It was in trying to write within other genres, in fact, that I first began to understand the importance of mastery.

About a year ago I got interested in fiction writing, so I brainstormed some story ideas and came up with a plot for a novel. I had spent years working on clarity and writing habits so my stats there were fine. But as I started writing my novel it became clear to me that I had no idea what I was doing. I was cranking out words and chapters even though I could tell that the material wasn’t very good. I knew it was bad, even as I was writing it, but I did not know how to fix it . I did not know what I was doing wrong.

Over the next few months I read some books on fiction writing and saw that I lacked the disciplinary mastery to create interesting fiction. I just did not have that skill. It didn’t matter that I had some disciplinary mastery in another area—unlike my clarity and writing habits, my previous mastery did not transfer to my novel. Writing a good philosophy paper is nothing like creating a compelling adventure across 100,000 words. I realized that if I wanted to improve my fiction, I would have to start from scratch. I would have to gain disciplinary mastery in a new area; I couldn’t just jump in and expect to be successful right away.

In fiction writing, “disciplinary mastery” is the ability to design and execute an engaging plot. It is the ability to tell a fun story . This skill takes practice , just as my disciplinary mastery required in philosophy and neuroscience. If my first novel is a mess or just boring, I won’t be surprised. My first philosophy papers weren’t good either. But if I keep pushing, and apply the principles of deliberate practice, I will get much better at fiction writing. Someday I will write a fun, engaging novel, and I will have a much higher stat value in the disciplinary mastery of fiction.

We can thus generalize the threefold division of academic writing into a way of analyzing every kind of writing. Writing in any field or genre is a process involving the three components of disciplinary mastery, clarity, and writing habits. Clarity and writing habits tend to transfer between fields. Disciplinary mastery does not. In addition, the exact nature of disciplinary mastery depends on the field. For philosophy it involves knowing problems and positions, while for fiction it involves telling a fun story. For science fiction it further involves some technical knowledge and the ability to translate that technical knowledge into a plot or character, and so on.

Professionalization: a focus on disciplinary mastery

Let’s leave off fiction and return to academic writing before finishing this post. Nearly all of graduate school, and most of “professionalization” for graduate students and early-career PhDs, focuses on disciplinary mastery. Graduate training is training in disciplinary mastery; entire fields are built around enhancing it, and graduate students get almost no training at all in the other two components of academic writing. In most cases, there is little support or reward for developing excellence in the other areas.

I think the overriding concentration on mastery is bad. While disciplinary mastery should be the major focus of graduate school, it shouldn’t be the exclusive focus.

How do academic writers improve in the skill of clarity, though? In the next post , I’ll combine what I’ve said here with the earlier post on deliberate practice. I will argue that the only way to make significant improvements in clarity is to get deliberate practice. I will explain what that practice looks like. Moreover, I will argue that academic writers should want to make significant improvements in clarity. They owe it to both their ideas and their audiences to become the best writers they can be with the skill of clarity.

Graduate training is training in disciplinary mastery; entire fields are built around enhancing it, and graduate students get almost no training at all in the other two components of academic writing. In most cases, there is little support or reward for developing excellence in the other areas. bryce gessell at writingisthinking.com

In this post I’ve divided academic writing into three components: disciplinary mastery, clarity, and writing habits. Disciplinary mastery is the ability to understand a field and make meaningful contributions to it. Clarity is the quality of the writing itself, and writing habits are how often and how healthily you write.

Graduate school, professional organizations, and the structure of most academic fields orient around improving disciplinary mastery. There are far fewer incentives to improve at the other two components.

Nevertheless, as we’ll see next, we stand to make great gains in clarity when we apply the principles of deliberate practice.

Academic writers should want to make significant improvements in clarity. They owe it to both their ideas and their audiences to become the best writers they can be with the skill of clarity bryce gessell at writingisthinking.com

[1] English translations nerf Kant’s writing rather than buff it. In German, pronouns carry information about number, gender, and case of their antecedents, helping a reader disambiguate references to previous nouns. English has no simple way of representing that information.

Previously in the Deliberate Practice Series:

Part 1 : What is deliberate practice?

Next up in the Deliberate Practice Series:

• Part 3 : A three-step process to improve academic writing
• Part 4 : Finding the right feedback to improve your writing
• ← Deliberate Practice for Academic Writers: What is deliberate practice?
• Deliberate Practice Part 3: A three-step process to improve academic writing →

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